Music - stimulus for learning across the primary curriculum - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 22 Words: 6478 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Education Essay Type Narrative essay Did you like this example? The teaching of music in Primary Schools is an area of education that has seen dramatic changes in the last few decades. From a situation where music teaching was almost non-existent in some schools, and where in others young children were frequently alienated from music by being banned from choirs or told they were ‘tone-deaf’, music is now strongly represented within the National Curriculum. Current thinking emphasises that there is no such thing as a completely unmusical child, and the curriculum has moved from an emphasis on performance – often for the relatively gifted only – and passive listening to encompass composition, performance and critical appraisal part of the musical education of every child. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Music stimulus for learning across the primary curriculum" essay for you Create order This study considers music within the broader context of Primary education, considering the benefits of integrating music into other areas of the curriculum, and looking at the implications for learning bearing in mind that music in itself has been linked with improved behaviour and concentration (Glover and Ward 1998: 14), and thus may be considered conducive to a desirable learning environment for all subjects, and, furthermore, to the social and mental well-being of Primary school children. The development of modern Primary music education can be traced back to the introduction of the National Curriculum in 1987, although music at the time was considered low priority, and was not included in the Curriculum until 1991. When the National Curriculum was introduced, many teachers questioned its viability: it moved away from the topic-based teaching which had embraced a number of subjects without specifying distinct areas such as history or music or language. It was felt that by focusing on the topic rather than specific academic subjects, lessons held more interest for children. However, a number of educationalists had criticised the topic-based approach because of its lack of objectives and limited focus on specific achievement, and the National Curriculum sought to address this. Today, best practice is considered to be somewhere between these two approaches: subjects are distinct from each other, but a focus on the links between different disciplines is encouraged, and it is in this environment that incorporating music into cross-curricular activities can be particularly beneficial. The past few decades have seen a significant change in the delivery of music education. The Plowden Report (1967) recognised the importance of ‘non-specialist’ teachers being able to deliver music teaching : â€Å"It is to the musical education of the teacher that attention must first be given†¦ Comparatively few primary schools†¦can, for s ome time to come, expect to have a music specialist as a full-time member of the staff and it is even doubtful whether a specialist responsible for most of the teaching is desirable. It is the musical education of the non-specialist which, in our view, is the key to the problem.†(Web link: Plowden Report para. 690) It was over two decades before this thinking began to be properly implemented. In the meantime, schools relied on music specialists –teachers who were trained musicians, almost always skilled pianists –and this led, at best, to a detachment of music-teaching from the rest of the curriculum, delivered by the class teacher, and, at worst (where a specialist was unavailable), marginalised or non-existent music education. The development of a National Curriculum for music which is intended to be delivered by classroom teachers without any music specialisation has allowed it to be linked with other work more easily.More significantly still, delivery by the class teacher who, through far more exposure to the class than the ‘once-a-week music teacher’,understands the dynamic of the class and the individual pupils’situations, enables that teacher to deliver music teaching in a way that engages the class more readily and meets their specific needs. In 1991, the National Curriculum for Music was developed quickly,with limited research and, in many areas of music teaching, no accepted‘good practice’ that could be incorporated into the plan. In 2000, anew National Curriculum for Music was introduced that could take account of what had been learnt through the 1990s. The announcement of the government’s Music Manifesto in July 2004 suggested a further commitment to music education, with the aim that every child should have the opportunity to learn a musical instrument. Although this could be considered a move away from classroom music teaching, with the requirement for peripatetic instrumental tea chers and the demands made on limited school time, the potential outcome is a future generation who consider a wide range of music to be part of their culture and experience, rather than something for their more gifted or more affluent classmates. In order to consider how music should be used across the Primary curriculum, some thought should be given to the ways in which children learn. There are various theories of learning: at the extremes are maturation, which suggests children should be left to learn through their own experiences, and behaviourism, which advocates learning through instruction from others. Many theories consider learning to be a combination of the two: Vygotsky’s theories reconcile the two approaches. Jean Piaget’s theories tend towards maturation and have been influential in education, though probably more so in the sciences than the arts. Through many years of observation, Piaget drew the conclusion that children establish a ‘framewor k’ within which they construct their vision of the world. As they experience something new, they try to explain it from the perspective of the framework (assimilation). Only if they cannot will their framework develop in some way(accommodation). Much of the experience Piaget considers should be self-generated and not instructional from teachers, parents or other authority figures. Piaget proposed four key stages of learning. For primary school teaching, the second and third stage are most relevant, covering the ages of around 2 to 7 (Pre-Operational) and around 7 to 11 (Concrete Operational) respectively. There is a lack of logic and a focus on the self in the Pre-operational stage, while in the Concrete operational stage, children are able to apply knowledge logically, manipulate information and understand the concept of others’ perceptions as well as their own. While Piaget’s theories are popular, many educators have reservations about them, particularly w ith regard to the specific age ranges linked to the stages. It is widely considered that such developments vary greatly in respect of age from child to child .Criticism of the Plowden Report has at times focused on its emphasis onPiagetian approaches (Gillard 2005). However, Piaget’s ideas are applied widely, including in music education, with its frequent focus on working together in ensembles (which helps develop understanding of others’ perspectives), or experimenting with the sounds that different classroom instruments can make (learning by experience). The behaviourist approach has lost favour in education: certainly in music, where it would be characterised by passive listening and instruction, it has been superceded by a more critical and analytical approach. Pavlov, famous for teaching dogs to salivate at the sound sofa bell, was a key figure in the development of behaviourist theory, and it has some place in musical education: for example, historical or cul tural context of a piece of music is best explained by the teacher before pupils explore its musical qualities. Vygotsky’s theories, which suggest children learn by a combination of experience and instruction are perhaps more relevant to primary music education. Vygotsky took into account the social and cultural environment, particularly the influence of parents. He proposed that children’s development arose as a result of interactions with others. Vygotsky’s theories provide a link to theories regarding the learning of expression through the spoken word. A number of academic shave researched the area of music as a language which might be learned in a similar way to speech. In Barrett (1996), various research into the learning of oral language is explored to construct a framework in which successful learning of music might take place. Key to it is immersion: just as language is practiced all around the child, so too should music be, with parents demonstrat ing good practice as well as teachers. This parallels the Suzuki method of instrumental learning,where the parent learns alongside the child and reinforces at home what has been taught. Barrett endorses a method which leans towards maturation – â€Å"the learner is encouraged to assume responsibility for his own learning,with frequent opportunities provided for the continuous practice of skills† (Barrett 1996:72), with â€Å"the teacher available to assist when help is requested† (ibid). Yet there is also an element of behaviourism: â€Å"The experience of explaining, or teaching an item to another is often instrumental in clarifying the issues within the mind of the learner† (ibid: 69). In Mills’ exploration of the development of musical skills in the primary years (Mills 1996), a New Zealand study is discussed which supports Barrett’s theories. Through extensive fieldwork, Roger Bucktonfound that Polynesian children in New Zealand sc hools sung with moreconsistent vocal accuracy than those from European families. Millsattributes this to the difference in culture: â€Å"[Polynesian] children sing with their families and in church from anearly age. Children of European ethnic background†¦often arrive atschool with little background in singing.† (Mills 1996: 119) As will be seen, these various schools of thought have implications forboth the study of music and of other subjects, and hence forcross-curricular activity too. To consider music’s use across the curriculum, we must first consider its place as a subject in its own right. The National Curriculum addresses the following core areas: Performing skills: controlling sound through singing and playing Composing skills: creating and developing musical ideas Appraising skills: responding to and reviewing music Listening and applying knowledge and understanding. The scope of the National Curriculum for music is broad. By the end ofKey Stage 1, pupils are expected to reach a standard where they arecapable of organising sound, of using symbols to represent music, ofperforming with an awareness of others and of responding to the mood ofmusic. Beyond the practical, they are also expected to learn aboutvarious music from history and around the world – this provides auseful opportunity for cross-curricular work – and to understand thefunctions of music such as for dance, again offering cross-curricularopportunities. This kind of background knowledge continues to form a core part of thecurriculum at Key Stage 2, with the practical element further expandedthrough ICT, with the statutory requirement to â€Å"capture, change andcombine sounds†. Technological developments and greater affordabilitymean this is an area that has been practical to include in thecurriculum only in recent years, and for many teachers unfamiliar with music technology, this creates an additional challenge. However, it isagain a practical area to apply cross-curricular teaching in. At Key Stage 2, pupils are expected to develop a sense of musicalexpression along with more advanced ensemble skills. They should alsobe able to evaluate and suggest improvements to pieces of music by thetime they leave Primary School. This corresponds to a time when pupilsare developing their own tastes, influenced by a range of externalfactors such as family (particularly older siblings), or artistsspecifically marketed at ‘tweens’. An awareness of such subcultures canhelp the Primary school teacher to relate elements of the music lessonto them to create a particular resonance with pupils with suchinterests. A 2002 study by a team of researchers from Southampton Roehampton and Keele Universities carried out as part of the QCA’s (Qualifications andCurriculum Authority) Curriculum Development Project in the Arts andMusic Monitori ng Programme produced some interesting findings(Hargreaves, Lamont, Marshall and Tarrant 2002). Many of the study’ssubjects were KS2 pupils. Across the study, which used interviews andquestionnaires to look at pupils’ and teachers’ attitudes to andengagement with school music teaching, children responded positively tothe performance aspect of the curriculum. Although many spent a gooddeal of time listening to music outside school (particularly popularmusic on the radio or on walkmans), little reference was made tolistening and appraising music in school music lessons, nor tocomposition. Given the government’s commitment to enabling every child to havethe opportunity to learn an instrument, it is perhaps surprising thatonly 17% of children thought this was something a school should offer,although the majority were learning or wanted to learn an instrument.While instrumental lessons may seem to offer limited scope forcross-curricular activities, and inde ed may take up additional teachingtime, their indirect effect on other subjects is positive as thelearning of an instrument helps develop a range of skills includingco-ordination, concentration and self-expression. The Southampton/Keele study noted that a number of teachersexpressed concern over time and financial resources available toimplement a music programme. The time constraints suggest thatcombination of subjects through cross-curricular activity may be anattractive solution if managed appropriately. The study also showed that the use of external music specialists inPrimary music teaching was widespread and, furthermore, help fromspecialists was seen as vital to the success of the music curriculum.The aim that music teaching should be deliverable by non-specialistteachers is still not met entirely: â€Å"Technical demands of the curriculum are mentioned by many teachers:even those with musical qualifications and expertise feel unable tocover the entire spectrum of the music curriculum.† (Hargreaves,Lamont, Marshall and Tarrant 2002: Section 3) This is not expanded on. Teachers responded positively to theschemes of work, particularly as a tool for less musically-experiencedteachers, but it is possible that the breadth of the music curriculumis a challenge for teachers to deliver. The government’s increasedfocus on learning an instrument is likely to maintain this situation.It will be interesting to see whether, in future years, the generationof teachers that has benefited from the National Curriculum for Musicas pupils and who have had more opportunity for learning an instrumentthan previous generations of Primary teachers find it easier to deliverclassroom music lessons. The response from schools in the Southampton/Keele survey wasoverwhelmingly positive and it appears that the National Curriculum hasbrought classroom music teaching out of the margins by demonstratingthe many benefits of musical activity, notably those beyond mu sicalskills such as the social aspects and positive impact on behaviour andconcentration. In addition to focusing purely on music for a period within thetimetable, many teachers practise combining music teaching with othersubjects. This has roots in pre-National Curriculum teaching, wherelearning was frequently cross-curricular and based on a topic. Incertain situations, it appears that music is highly relevant in theteaching of another subject. This section explores the opportunitiesavailable and shows how there may be significant benefits for learningin all subjects in a cross-curricular lesson. Glover and Ward warn that there is a danger of attempting tocombine subjects in a way that has little benefit. They particularlydraw attention to themed songs which have no musical relevance: â€Å"In a topic on ‘food’†¦young children might be encouraged to sing ‘FoodGlorious Food’†¦ the links with the topic are spurious†¦the song may be a poor musical choice for a class who find difficulty with pitching thedemanding interval leaps.† (Glover and Ward 1998: 153-4) Glover and Ward also draw attention to the practice of linkingcomposition too closely to topic work, so that children are invited tocreate the sound of, for example weather, producing sound effectsrather than an appropriately-structured and thought-out piece of music(Glover and Ward 1998: 154). Bearing these points in mind, how can music teaching be productively combined with other subject areas? History lends itself to an exploration of music from other times. Astudy of the Tudors might incorporate a look at Tudor instruments andmusic, which provides further opportunities to consider Tudor life.Many pieces are dances, and pupils might participate in a dance of theera. Pupils can find out more about the function of the music, aboutwho would have been able to afford the instruments and who would haveplayed them. This might link with study of lif e for the wealthycontrasted with the majority of the population or of leisure pursuitsof the time. This helps reinforce what has been learnt about life inTudor times, while consideration of the stylistic qualities of themusic benefits musical understanding. Geography provides the chance to consider world music within its socialand cultural context rather than in isolation. Glover and Ward advocateexploring various musical styles from the same geographical area: â€Å"A little research goes a long way towards getting things intoperspective. Children will be interested in the detail and thedifferences between different music within a culture.† (Glover and Ward1998: 160) Through exploration of the elements which go to make a particularmusical style, children can learn about musical devices such as dronesor call-and-response structures. Simultaneously, by understanding therole of a type of music within a particular culture, they gain abroader understanding of different s ocieties. Science lessons can provide a framework for the study of soundproduction. Through a focus on a range of instruments and othermaterials and their sonic properties (the production method of thesound, its qualities and pitch range, for example) causes pupils tofocus on the detail of sound. Composition activities linked toexperiments with sound production are enhanced: pupils consider thescope of their instruments in a broader range of musical parameters.Their scientific understanding of sound also benefits. Maths has particularly strong links with music, and various studieshave established a link between aptitude in maths and musical ability.Rhythm in music has a significant mathematical component: an obviousexample is the US note-naming system, where a crotchet is aquarter-note, a quaver an eighth-note and so on. Musical patterns offerthe opportunity to explore principles of symmetry, by playing a patternin its original form and in reverse. The inversion of a melody ca n belikened to reflection. A number of composers have incorporatedmathematical concepts into their music: many of these are rathercomplex for consideration at primary level, although the works ofXenakis may be useful for older Primary pupils. The construction of aparabola through a series of overlaid straight lines is visible in someof Xenakis’ scores, with lines performed as a string glissandi (slidesthrough pitch). Xenakis’ involvement with architecture, again using thescience of curves, may also be linked to lessons in this subject area.In addition to obvious connections with mathematics, Xenakis’ scoresare a useful example of how modern composers develop their own notationsystems and graphic scores, which may inspire children in compositionactivities. Literacy also has a close affiliation with music. The inflections inspeech are melodic and it has distinct rhythmic qualities. The settingof text to music draws on these connections. Explorations of language and words – for example, rhyming words or short poem – can be takenfurther by turning them into chants or songs. A recent trend which underlines the links between language andmusic is the frequency with which children write a ‘rap’ rather than apoem. This could be taken further with a look at rap music payingattention to the dialect, fulfilling the requirement of the NationalCurriculum for English that children understand about language variety.However, any rap music should be selected with care due to subjectmatter and vocabulary in many rap tracks being unsuitable for use inschool. Narratives in literacy can also be explored through music, but itis important that children understand the concept of music without aprogramme and can link musical devices to punctuation: a cadence is afull stop, a musical phrase correlates with a spoken phrase (Glover andWard 1998: 166). The National Curriculum for Physical Education promotes the explorationof music through dance, and schools have a long tradition of music andmovement lessons. Dance and music together are included in thegovernment’s Schemes of Work: â€Å"Unit 31†¦In this unit children focus on popular dance styles ofdifferent eras. They explore a range of dances, using step and gesturepatterns, body shapes, contact work, and contrasts in dynamic andrhythmic patterning. They learn more about both dance style and music.†(Weblink: Schemes of Work: PE/dance) This unit has links to history and possibly geography too, so is truly cross-curricular. Response to music through movement is pertinent throughout our culture(the inclination to tap a foot to the beat, for example), and in youngchildren a physical response to music is common. Ben-Tovim and Boydinclude this as a criterion in a ‘Musicality Test’ to be applied whenconsidering whether a child should learn a musical instrument(Ben-Tovim and Boyd 1995: 18). Possibly the most difficult sub ject to establish effectivecross-curricular links in is art. While music and art can be seen asclosely connected, they both function in a similar role in terms ofproviding an outlet for self-expression through organisation ofelements, whether visual or aural. The temptation to play a piece ofmusic as an ‘inspiration’ for painting may result in the childinventing a programme for the music which is then represented in apicture. One must question the benefits of this regarding the verylimited extent to which it might benefit musical understanding, andalso its unintentional promotion of the idea that music must beprogrammatic. Also, is the music a background element compromising thechild’s concentration on the art, or vice versa? Overall, there is a wide range of opportunity to combine music withother subjects to the benefit of both curriculum areas concerned. Thepractical applications discussed above also fulfil a balanced model ofinstructional teaching and self- discovery: for example, the teacherpresents a recording of music from another era or land, and providesbackground information, but the pupils are encouraged to explore itscharacteristics for themselves. This promotes a blend of thebehaviourist and maturation theories discussed earlier. The opportunities for mutual support between subjects throughcross-curricular teaching demonstrates the importance of classroomteachers having adequate support and training to incorporate music intoother lessons; it is even more relevant in cross-curricular teachingthan in music lessons. By ensuring this is the case, benefits may beseen across almost all curriculum subjects. In addition to combining music with other subjects in order to teach itdirectly, music has further applications in the curriculum. The connections between language and music have a further benefit thatcan be utilised across various subjects. Text set to music is moreeasily committed to memory, and the use of songs to lear n key facts iswidespread – for example, to learn numbers or the alphabet.Number-learning by song is effective, as one SEN teacher using singingin Maths comments: â€Å"Even if pupils don’t understand the concept of numbers, they can sing up to 10†, (Maynard 2004) Colwell’s research with Kindergarten children in the US (Colwell 1994)demonstrated that when children practised a reading text set to music,they read it with greater accuracy than a group who had practised thetext without its musical setting. However, although this researchsupports the findings of previous experiments, it used a sample of only27 subjects. Research undertaken by Dr Frances Rauscher, a former professional’cellist with a Ph.D. in Psychology, and her colleagues suggested alink between playing music to a group of subjects and a simultaneousincrease in their spatial-temporal reasoning abilities (Rauscher, Shawand Ky 1993). Since then, further research has been undertaken whichboth supports and questions these results. A further study in 1997 on preschool children showed a 34% increasein spatial-temporal reasoning tests among children who had receivedprivate piano and singing lessons compared to those who had not –including a group who had received private computer lessons. Theconclusion drawn by the researchers was that learning music was ofbenefit to learning potential in maths and science subjects, and moreso than computer skills. This research raises many questions. Firstly, it is widely thoughtthat the ideal age to begin learning an instrument is no younger than 7: â€Å"the second most common factor in musical failure was starting at thewrong time – too early†¦a six year old who goes on and on about wantingto play a musical instrument is experiencing the promptings of hisdeveloping instinct to make music, but he is not yet ready to do muchabout it.† (Ben-Tovim and Boyd 1995: 20) . It is therefore somewhat surp rising that very young children engagedwith their music lessons in a way that increased their more generalmental capabilities. This has clear implications for the government’sMusic Manifesto; could earlier instrumental learning have a greaterbenefit in other subjects? The second issue is the findings themselves: as the computerlessons had little impact on test results while the music lessons madea significant difference, it is clear that private teaching alone isnot the cause of the improvement; rather it is the learning of music.However, it does not necessarily follow that by simply listening tomusic, a child’s academic potential in mathematics or any other subjectis enhanced. Rauscher’s research has created a great deal of interest bothwithin more general media and among psychologists and other academics.It has, to some extent, been mythologised with the label â€Å"The MozartEffect†. Rauscher’s findings have been disputed by a number of aca demics.Heath and Bangerter (2004) argue that the original 1993 research, oncollege students, showed only a small effect which was not prolonged,and that a number of research projects have failed to replicate theresults. They also demonstrated a link between the level of attainmentin various states in the US and the amount of local newspaper coveragepromoting the Mozart Effect: the lower the attainment, the morecoverage. Heath and Bangerter attributed this to the recognition of aparticular problem and the possibility of a ‘quick fix’. In a number ofstates local government reflected media endorsement by subsidisingprojects to expose children to Mozart recordings, but it appears therestill needs to be more research in the area Rauscher herself has moved to clarify her research: â€Å"Our results on the effects of listening to Mozarts Sonata for TwoPianos in D Major K. 448 on spatial-temporal task performance, havegenerated much interest but several misconceptions†¦ the most common ofthese [is] that listening to Mozart enhances intelligence. We made nosuch claim. The effect is limited to spatial-temporal tasks involvingmental imagery and temporal ordering.† (Rauscher 1999) However, a number of studies have shown some evidence of a Mozarteffect in various different environments. Most relevant is Ivanov andGeake (2003) which found a Mozart Effect and a Bach Effect on Primaryschool children listening to music while undertaking a paper-foldingtask (again, this is demonstrating spatial-temporal competence ratherthan intelligence). This study also established that general musictraining was not a factor in the results – this suggests that playingmusic has a temporary effect on reasoning, and might not enhancelearning in other subjects subseq uently unless music is played on thatoccasion. The Mozart Effect continues to be debated by academics because ofthe conflicting research findings. However, it is notable that limitedresearch has been done on the elements of music which might contributeto the effect, although reference to an unspecified study by Dr WilliamThompson (Weblink: Research relating to the ‘Mozart Effect’ (2)) notesthat the effect is evident when lively classical music, includingMozart and Schubert, is played, but not with slower music by Albinoni. Many teachers report using background music in a variety of situations with positive results: â€Å"For many years I have used music during lessons. It helps youngchildren relax in handwriting lessons, and helps their concentrationduring imaginative writing sessions.† (Hume 2004) It appears that there is certainly some evidence supporting playinglively classical music in a variety of class situations to boostpupils’ performan ce, and a number of teachers are using backgroundmusic in class and feel it to be beneficial. However, much research isstill needed in this area. Music teaching has a variety of uses within the curriculum for pupilswith special educational needs (SEN). The term SEN is used to refer topupils with special needs arising from a wide range of situations andconditions such as physical disability, emotional and behaviouralproblems, autism, school phobia, a background of abuse or stress ordyslexia. Many of these children may be academically gifted, others mayfind very basic concepts challenging. Music in SEN, as a result,fulfils a range of functions. For all SEN music lessons, there is the potential to cover areasincluded in the National Curriculum: listening and appraising,composing and performing. The nature of SEN teaching means that thesemay have to be adapted according to the needs of pupils. Cross-curricular activity can be useful tool: for example, whilepupils with concentra tion problems may struggle to sit and listen tomusic, they may be more receptive if asked to draw a picture respondingto music that is playing while they do so, although there can be adifficulty with children focusing on their art and barely noticing themusic. Perry (1995: 56) suggests using a 5 minute excerpt introducedwith a story – thus using literacy – to create an initial engagementbefore moving on to children drawing. Music may also be used as a form of therapy. For younger children,activities undertaken while standing in a circle are of particularbenefit in helping child a child with attention difficulties to engage.An activity might involve passing a teddy around a circle while musicplays until it stops, at which point the child holding the teddy has achance to play briefly on an instrument. The teddy helps those childrenwho might be resistant to the activity to accept it (Weblinks: Becta). For autistic children, music can contribute to establishing arout ine. With songs, for example, for lunchtime, for playtime and forgoing-home time, where the same piece of music is used consistently forthe same activity, singing can help maintain the sense of stability androutine which is particularly important for those with autism (Maynard2004). While musical activities can benefit children with specialeducational needs, care must also be taken not to cause a detrimentaleffect. Packer (1996: 136) identifies that certain methods of musicmaking can create stress for a child who is particularly sensitive toit, quoting Nordoff and Robbins, pioneers in music therapy. Sheexpresses concern, however, that fear of causing harm can eliminate anychance of benefit if it results in less music being used in SENteaching. The role of music in SEN teaching effectively falls into twodifferent categories: music to try and lessen the SEN – for example,for children with behavioural problems – and music as a means offulfilling a number of needs fo r children whose underlying condition –say, visual impairment – will not be improved by the musical activities. For children who struggle to engage with mainstream activitiesbecause of a condition such as visual impairment or dyslexia, music hasan important role because many musical activities place them on anequal footing with pupils without special educational needs. This canenhance confidence and fulfil social needs. It is important to include deaf children in musical activities.Those with no hearing can sense vibrations and pulses, and theopportunity to play an instrument can have a significant effect on ahearing-impaired or profoundly deaf child. The organisation Music andthe Deaf, founded by Paul Whittaker, a gifted organist who isprofoundly deaf, has undertaken a number of projects to promote musicin the classroom for deaf children (Weblink: Music and the Deaf). Gifted children also fall within the category of SEN teaching, andcan prove a particular cha llenge in classroom music teaching. It is notunusual to find a Primary School pupil who has achieved AssociatedBoard Grade 5 or 6 on an instrument and for the non-specialist musicteacher this raises the issue of their own expertise being scrutinised.In practice, many of the activities in the QCA’s schemes of work adaptwell to cater for children of a wide variety of standards: for example,a composition or improvisation exercise allows each child to perform atthe level of their choosing. With many Local Education Authoritiesrunning Saturday music schools and similar activities, the provisionfor the musically-able pupil is often more than adequate. In conclusion, it is clear that music teaching in Primary schools has awide range of potential applications, including learning specificmusical skills, the reinforcement and exploration of concepts in othersubject areas, the enhancement of social aspects of school and apositive impact on behaviour and concentration. However, his torical neglect of classroom music teaching has resulted inthe ideal situation, of all Primary School teachers confident andcompetent in the delivery of classroom music lessons, still lacking inmany schools. This creates a situation where music is being taught veryinclusively, with the aim of engaging all pupils and the belief thatall pupils are capable of musical expression, by teachers with littleor no experience of being included themselves. The effect on a child’sconfidence of being told they are ‘no good’ at music, or of not beingallowed to join in with their peers in singing or playing activities,can have a lasting effect and it might be that issues with Primaryschool music teaching have more to do with teachers’ confidence thancompetence. It could be argued that the Music Manifesto’s emphasis oninstrumental teaching is in danger of perpetuating this. While seemingto offer children from all backgrounds an opportunity to participate inwhat c an be an expensive activity, there is the risk that thosechildren who are not inclined to learn an instrument are ‘made’ to takeone up by parents, that children who struggle with their instrumentfeel marginalised and compelled to abandon the instrument and theirenjoyment of music with it. The Southampton/Keele study showed that 45%of children surveyed from upper Primary and lower Secondary classes didnot learn an instrument and furthermore had no wish to. However, manyof these children enjoyed playing CDs, DJing, karaoke and singing alongto recordings at home, and it may therefore be desirable to incorporatethese activities into future plans (Hargreaves, Lamont, Marshall andTarrant 2002: Section 2). It is notable that instrumental lessons require specialist teaching,taking music education outside the remit of classroom teachers. Thesame could be argued for a credible supervised DJ-ing or karaokesession. These lessons potentially leave less time for classroom musicmak ing or for other subjects where music can be used incross-curricular situations. Yet the benefits of music in the classroomhas been established and it is important that, having become moreprominent within the curriculum, and with the support of teachers andheads, music does not become a more peripheral subject. Widespreadinstrumental proficiency would give a broader range of opportunitiesfor music-related activities, for example, the opportunity for allchildren to play in ensembles or sing with their peers providingmusical backing and to compose using the various instruments they andtheir peers are learning. The recent announcement by Ruth Kelly, Secretary of State forEducation, of an extended school day with breakfast clubs andafterschool activities may go some way to addressing the pressures onthe school timetable created by increasing the remit of school musiceducation. The future development of music education needs to be considered inthe context of music not merely as a c urriculum subject with a certainset of skills attached, but for its possibilities in other subjects andto fulfil a broader role in the school and community. Another area which needs further consideration is the broadereffects of music such as use as a therapy or as a tool to aidconcentration. Evidence suggests that research is still in its earlystages and causing some confusion over the potential of such uses ofmusic. It appears that there is no standard ‘good practice’ developedfor these applications. Given that many researchers are in conflictover what music can and cannot achieve, and that research largelyreports effects (or lack of them) with little exploration of whatspecific qualities in the music might be causing an effect, it is notsurprising that so little guidance seems to exist in this area.However, the number of studies reporting some kind of beneficial effectis too significant to ignore. As the research continues, it should beviable to put together infor mation on best practice and to implementthis in Primary – and other – schools with a greater consistency andpositive results. Another area of inconsistency is the links in schools with externalcontacts. One of the main reasons the Southampton/Keele studyestablished for children liking music lessons was â€Å"contact with ‘real’or professional musicians† (Hargreaves, Lamont, Marshall and Tarrant2002: Section 4). Many orchestras and other ensembles have outreachprojects involving musicians visiting schools. However, with many suchensembles London-based or in large cities, and professional musicianshaving many other commitments, there is a limit to how many of the UK’sapproximately 25000 Primary schools can be visited, with a notableeffect: â€Å"Smaller schools without these opportunities find this a significantproblem, whilst schools who benefit form contact with the world ofprofessional musicians report this as extremely beneficial ins upporting their in-school music teaching and activities† (ibid:Section 3). With inevitable limits on funding and time, the use of resources, evenwith the guidance of the National Curriculum and Schemes of Work, issubjective. However, the growing research into music, learning and itsbenefits for Primary school children supports a continued focus on thissubject which for so many decades has been neglected. To summarise, the recommendations for Primary music education in the future are: To continue training and support to increase classroom teachers’ confidence and competence in delivering music in a range of classroom situations To promote the use of music in cross-curricular situations with a mutual benefit for the two (or more) subjects taught in conjunction with each other To consider ongoing research into the broader benefits of music, both in mainstream education and SEN teaching, and to implement findings where applicable To continue to develop an inclusive Primary music strategy With the above points implemented, the growth of music as a forcewithin education with broad benefits for children and the widercommunity, will be set to continue. Barrett M (1996) Music Education and the Natural Learning Model in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp63-73 Ben-Tovim A and Boyd D (1995) The Right Instrument for your Child (Gollancz, London) Campbell D (2002) The Mozart Effect for Children (Hodder and Stoughton, London) Carlton M (1987) Music in Education (Woburn Press, London) Colwell, C (1994) Therapeutic application of music in the wholelanguage kindergarten in Journal of Music Therapy 1994 vol31 pp238-247(American Music Therapy Association) Gillard, D. (2005) The Plowden Report in The Encyclopaedia of Informal Education (www.infed.org/schooling/plowden_report.htm) Glover J and Ward S (1998) Teaching Music in the Primary School 2nd Edition (Cassell, London) Hargreaves D, Marshall N, Lamont A and Tarrant M (2002) Young people’smusic in and out of school: A study of pupils and teachers in primaryand secondary schoolshttps://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/ps/ResearchReport.htm (Southampton/Keelestudy) Hume P (2004) Letter in Your Say, Teachers Magazine November 2004 Issue 35 (John Brown Citrus Publishing, London) Ivanov V and Geake J (2003) The Mozart Effect and Priamry SchoolChildren in Psychology of Music, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp405-413 (Society forEducation, Music and Psychology Research) Lesiuk T (2005) The effect of music listening on work performance inPsychology of Music, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp173-191 (Society for Education,Music and Psychology Research) Maynard M (2004) Letter in Your Say, Teachers Magazine November 2004 Issue 35 (John Brown Citrus Publishing, London) Mills J (1996) Musical Development in the Primary Years in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp108-120 Packer Y (1996) Music with emotionally disturbed children in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp132-143 Perry T M (1995) Music Lessons for Children with Special Needs (Jessica Kingsley, London) Rauscher F, Shaw G and Ky C (1993) Music and Spatial Task Performance in Nature 14 October 1993, p611 (Nature Publishing Group) Rauscher F (1999) Reply: Prelude or requiem for the Mozart effect? in Nature 26 August 1999 pp827-8 (Naturee Publishing Group) Rainbow B (1996) Onward from Butler: School music 1945-1985 in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp9-20 Swanwick K (1996a) Music Education before the National Curriculum in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp21-46 Swanwick K (1996b) Some observations on research and music education in Spruce (Ed) Teaching Music (Routledge, London) pp253-262 Wood D (1988) How Children Think and Learn (Blackwell, Oxford) Wragg E C (1993) Primary Teaching Skills (Routledge, London) National Curriculum for Music http:[email  protected]/* */=6004[email  protected]/* */=D_yis3e4CTrLs7ag596PwI[email  protected]/* */=3871 Becta: Pass the Teddy https://tre.ngfl.gov.uk/server.php?request=cmVzb3VyY2UuZnVsbHZpZXc%3DresourceId=8764 Music and the Deaf www.matd.org.uk Research relating to the ‘Mozart Effect’: General (1) https://www.edu-cyberpg.com/Music/musicsmart.html (2) www.lcmedia.com/mind250.htm Schemes of Work: PE/dance https://www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/schemes2/phe/phedancelink/?view=get The Plowden Report https://www.dg.dial.pipex.com/plowden.shtml

Security Risks And Risk Management Process - 1263 Words

Abstract: Protecting the data related to health sector, business organizations, information technology, etc. is highly essential as they are subject to various threats and hazards periodically. In order to provide security, the information has to adapt to certain risk analysis and management techniques which has to be done dynamically with the changes in environment. This paper briefly describes about analyzing the security risks and risk management processes to be followed for electronic health records to ensure privacy and security. Overview of Security Risk Management: Security is being free from threats. The term can be used with reference to crime, accidents of all kinds, etc. Security is a vast topic including security of countries against terrorist attack, security of computers against hackers, home security against thieves and other intruders, financial security against economic collapse and many other related situations. Security risks are often at the base of many other risks associated with eHealth. The data present in the Electronic Health Records that are recorded, maintained or transmitted by the third party devices and so, must be secured in order to protect the information from breaches such as anticipated threats or hazards. These security measures must be managed as eliminating all threats is impossible, and so, health organizations will periodically conduct a risk analysis to determine their possible exposure and find the best way to manage the risksShow MoreRelatedA Brief Note On Risk Management Process And Monitoring Security Cont rols1828 Words   |  8 PagesRMF Risk Management is the process that information system managers apply to adjust the operational and financial expenses of defensive measures for their information and information systems with the gains in abilities and enhanced backing of hierarchical mission that result from the utilization of effective security systems. 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The System development life cycle is the overall process of developing, implementing and retiring information systems through a multiple process fromRead MoreSecurity Risks And Risk Management1267 Words   |  6 PagesEHEALTH SECURITY RISK MANAGEMENT Abstract Protecting the data related to health sector, business organizations, information technology, etc. is highly essential as they are subject to various threats and hazards periodically. In order to provide security, the information has to adapt to certain risk analysis and management techniques which has to be done dynamically with the changes in environment. This paper briefly describes about analyzing the security risks and risk management processes to beRead MoreApplication Of A Risk Assessment1068 Words   |  5 Pagesfocus on, and allocate resources to, ICS security due to: †¢ The detection of a security breach †¢ The requirement to conform to a compliance mandate †¢ The outcome of a risk assessment Developing a secure ICS architecture based on the principles introduced in Module 4 – ICS Cyber Security Architecture will not in itself be sufficient to ensure ongoing protection. As time goes by, new vulnerabilities will be discovered in various ICS components, and new risks may be introduced through changes to workRead MoreThe Ethics Of The Homeland Security1116 Words   |  5 PagesAs we move into a new era were a more robust and urgent homeland security program is needed, it is important to talk about how officials are managing all of the risk. There are a multitude of threats; from terrorism, where tactics are all the more unconventional an unpredictable, to climate change, with extreme weather conditions causing severe droughts or other catastrophic storms. The risk accepted by federal officials must be weighed and prioritized in a manner that is conducive to the longevity

The Five Factor Of Personality - 966 Words

The Five Factor of Personality The theorists of the five-factor model organized five categories to describe common personality traits. Extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and open to experience (Carver Scheier, 2012). Extraverison is how a person’s interests are in an outward manner or things that does not involve self. Neuroticism is how stable a person’s own emotions. Agreeableness is how the reflection of how a person is while maintaining relationships. Conscientiousness is the representation of people that are responsible in most aspect of their lives, on the other hand, Open to experience is the probability of a person trying new thing (Carver Scheier, 2012). Everyone falls in one end of the spectrums of the five categories. Spontaneous people tend to fall on the high ends of extraversion, open to experiences, agreeableness, and consciousness and low on neuroticism. Humanistic Perspective A human’s values and/or beliefs are the importance of the humanistic perspective in psychology (Schultz Schultz, 2009). The idea of the humanistic approach is for people to reach one’s potential. All humans can reach their highest level of potential, and not one is purposely bad or unworthy (Carver Scheier, 2012). Maslow and Rogers explain the steps and the work a person has to achieve in order for a person to reach their full potential. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives The Hierarchy of Needs is structured in a pyramid chart that shows variousShow MoreRelatedBig Five Personality Factors1676 Words   |  7 Pages‘’Big Five’’ Personality Factors Personality is made up of the characteristic frameworks of opinions, emotions, and demeanors that make a person distinctive. A variety of diverse concepts have arose to describe different aspects of personality. 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Essay on Akers Social Learning Theory - 2230 Words

High crime rates are an ongoing issue through the United States, however the motivation and the cause of crime has yet to be entirely identified. Ronald Akers would say that criminality is a behavior that is learned based on what an individual sees and observes others doing. When an individual commits a crime, he or she is acting on impulse based on actions that they have seen others engage in. Initially during childhood, individuals learn actions and behavior by watching and listening to others, and out of impulse they mimic the behavior that is observed. Theorist Ronald Akers extended Sutherland’s differential association theory with a modern viewpoint known as the social learning theory. The social learning theory states that†¦show more content†¦The fundamentals of the social learning theory significantly describe offenders and their criminal behavior which is learned based on observation and imitation. A researcher by the name of Albert Bandura along with coworke rs tested the social learning theory with several experiments on children and their imitation of aggression based on what they saw and were exposed to. Bandura’s focus was to prove that human behavior such as aggression is learned through social imitations and copying the actions of others. Walters (1966) gives details about the Bobo doll experiment and explains its purpose related to learning a violent behavior based on observation. In the experiment, the tested subjects were children of both sexes, ranging from the ages of three to six years. Some of the children were exposed to a non-aggressive adult, while the other children were placed in a room with an aggressive adult who would both physically and verbally attack the Bobo doll. The control group in the experiment was not exposed to any adult. During the second phase of the experiment, the children were left in a room by themselves with the toys, and watched to see if they would demonstrate the aggressive behavior like that of which they observed adults doing earlier. Walter (1966) describes the results as â€Å"children who had been exposed to an aggressive model showed more imitative physical and verbalShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Ronald Aker s First Social Learning Theory1375 Words   |  6 PagesBackground Social Learning Theory Ronald Aker’s first social learning theory article was first published as a way to explain Sutherland’s claim the â€Å"Criminal behavior is learned† (Willams McShane, 2014). Aker believed that most deviant behavior is learned through social interaction. The main components of Aker’s social learning theory focused on differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation. 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The social learning theory does no t explain all learning and behaviour, it fails to account for biological and innate behaviours suchRead MoreEssay on Social Control Theory vs. Social Learning Theory1979 Words   |  8 PagesSocial Control Theory vs. Social Learning Theory Abstract Social control theory and social learning theory are two theories that suggest why deviant behavior is chosen to be acted upon by some individuals and not others. Both take a different stance on the issue. Social control theory suggests people’s behavior is based on their bonds to society, if they have strong bonds to society they conform and if not they have a tendency to act out or become involved in criminalRead MoreSocial Control Theory And Social Learning Theory2007 Words   |  9 Pagesor bad, but we really don’t know why we make those choices. There is a point in life when you choose to be deviant. Social control theory and social learning theory suggest what makes us do the deviant behavior and what makes it different from one person to another. They both have to do with the world around us, but have different views on how you portray yourself from that. Social control is how you interact with society, and it suggest that if you are close to society you will ha ve good behaviorRead MoreSocial Learning Theory Of Crime1278 Words   |  6 Pagesconcept, social learning theory has been applied to the many different fields of social science to explain why certain individuals develop motivation to commit (or abstain from) crime and develop the skills to commit crime through the people they associate with. Social Learning Theory (SLT) is one of the most frequently looked at theories in the criminology field. This theory was introduced by Ronald L. Akers as a reformulation of Edwin H. 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His main point was that criminals are not ‘born’ criminals; rather individuals learn to be criminals through a process of learning, which occurs as a result of experiences. (Akers, 1990:3). However, this paper’s f ocus is not on Bandura’s theory rather it is on Ronald Aker’s theory that explores which associations

Nosocomial Infections Free Essays

Remember your mother always reminding you to wash your hands? We have all been told to do so at one point in our lives or another. As children we grudgingly obeyed, not really appreciating the wisdom and love behind the statement. For most of us, the value of hand hygiene is superficial; a means to clean soiled, unsightly hands. We will write a custom essay sample on Nosocomial Infections or any similar topic only for you Order Now We were not aware that washing our hands regularly was a primary defense against many types of diseases. As a child it was imposed upon us by our parents, but as we grew older, we realize its true value but no longer practice it on a regular basis, finding it inconvenient and a waste of time. The truth is that hand hygiene is one of our best defenses against diseases. The simple act of washing and rubbing our hands vigorously with soap and running water is an effective shield against bacteria-borne infections. And this is especially true for health care professionals who are exposed to bacteria on a regular basis. People go to hospitals and other healthcare institutions for medical attention and treatment of their ailments. However, while most people get well after a trip to the hospital, there are cases where people get worse because of exposure to harmful microorganisms that abound in these hospitals. In hospitals, bacteria proliferate because of the high concentration of ill people at one place at any one given time, and they can cause secondary infections to people going to the hospital. These types of infections are caught secondary to a hospital visit or stay, and are called nosocomial infections. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) defined nosocomial infections or healthcare-acquired infections as â€Å"infections that patients acquire during the course of receiving treatment.† (Boyce, 2002, 29) And because these patients did not initially harbor these nosocomial infections, they could only have been acquired while in the hospital, while in contact with doctors and nurses who go from one sick patient to another. These health care professionals become the main mode of transmission for nosocomial infections, and this is made even worse especially if doctors and nurses do not practice proper hand hygiene. It does not take a rocket scientist to figure it out. In hospitals, most patients are bed-ridden, not allowed to go from one place to another. Therefore, the risk of them directly infecting another patient is slim. Only doctors and nurses move about from one patient to another, in constant physical contact with the patients. Because the hands are their main point of contact, the hands become the main vehicle of microbes as well. They â€Å"stick† to the doctors and nurses hands, and remain there until they are â€Å"dropped off† somewhere else. This process goes on and on until the bacteria find a suitable host, which is almost always, the human body. Inside the human body, these microbes will colonize and proliferate, causing many types of health problems. These transient, disease causing bacteria use the skin as temporary vehicles to get from one point to another. However, because these microbes are transient and non-colonizing on the skin surface, they are easily removed by proper and rigorous hand washing with an anti-microbial soap and water. Therefore, proper hand washing can halt the spread of disease-causing bacteria in their tracks. If doctors and nurses fail to clean their hands, they become virtual havens for microbes, transmitting and causing nosocomial infections. The figures are alarming. Studies have shown that one out of every 20 patients contract nosocomial infections because of inadequate hygiene practices in most American hospitals. These nosocomial infections â€Å"kill an estimated 103,000 people in the United States a year, as many as AIDS, breast cancer and auto accidents combined.† (McCaughey, 2005, 1) The World Health Organization says that nosocomial or healthcare acquired infections are one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. (Ducel, 2002, 7) And all of this because of dirty hands. And all of these deaths and suffering are unnecessary. They can be easily remedied. If every healthcare worker would faithfully practice proper hand hygiene as they move from one patient to another, â€Å"there would be an immediate and profound reduction in the spread of resistant bacteria.†(Goldmann, 2006, 122) From every point of contact with patients, the hands of doctors and nurses are dirty, carrying infection-causing microbes; and as doctors and nurses attend to their patients’ needs, these bacteria move into the patients. While most of these bacteria can normally be fought off by the body, the compromised bodies of patients already weakened by an existing sickness become easy targets for these parasites, and nosocomial infections can easily set in. And because these infections attack a weak immune system, these can lead to more serious complications and even death. As the main vectors of nosocomial infections, doctors and nurses can prevent the spread through appropriate hand-sanitizing procedures. Hand hygiene is the single most important patient care practice that health care providers can do to prevent cross contamination and nosocomial infection. Some may say that hand hygiene is made redundant by wearing of antiseptic gloves on a regular basis. However, even if doctors and nurses wear gloves, it will also be contaminated if the hands are not clean in the first place. These gloves must be worn and removed using the hands, and so the cycle of contamination perpetuates itself in the hands of doctors and nurses with dirty hands. The premise of hand washing is very simple and very effective. Microbes are parasites. They depend on a host to live and reproduce themselves. However, bacteria are not mobile; they do have the means to move from one place to another. As such, they depend on outside help to move about and find new hosts to infect. This help comes in the form of doctors and nurse, who because of their many responsibilities, forget to clean their hands, or do so incorrectly. The anti-microbial property of soaps plus the rigorous friction of the rubbing of the hands can easily remove, weaken, or even kill these transient, infection-causing microbes before they can cause anyone any more harm. As such, a system-wide must be enforced, making proper hand hygiene mandatory for all doctors and nurses. Hand hygiene stations must be installed all over hospitals to make it easy for healthcare workers to clean their hands anytime. Indeed nosocomial infections can exact a high price. But what is even more unfortunate about nosocomial infections is the fact that it can be avoided. These healthcare associated infections are unnecessary tragedies that can be easily prevented with proper sanitation and hygiene procedures. Of course it is important to note that hand hygiene or hand washing is not enough. It must be done properly, following certain guidelines. It is not enough to clean the hands; they must be disinfected. Normal or ordinary hand washing is the same as no hand hygiene at all. This means that hand washing must be done right, or not at all because it does not make any difference to harmful microbes or the health of the patients. Hand hygiene depends on the case and the area of the hospital involved. Normal hand hygiene should be done for at least a minute, with vigorous rubbing of the two hands against each other. Plain soap has been proven to effective against microorganism because the soap lifts the microbes off the surface of the skin to be rinsed off by running water. Hand hygiene need not be complicated or costly. All it takes is soap, running water, and friction, and the discipline to do it regularly and properly. The key is to make it a habit. There is no dearth of evidence showing that hand washing is effective in halting the spread of infections; the problem is that very few people in the health care industry practice hand hygiene in compliance with regulations. Most wash their hands but do so inappropriately, which is useless in itself. While stopping the spread of nosocomial infections is complex, there is no denying the fact that the first line of defense against nosocomial infections is hand hygiene for nurses and doctors. Simple adherence to proper cleaning/disinfecting procedures is all that is needed to prevent needless infections from spreading any further and causing more harm. It is simply a matter of discipline. First do no harm†¦ that is the adage that all health workers swear by. It is ironic that nurses and doctors should also be the main vectors of nosocomial infections. These nosocomial infections are the shame of the healthcare system because it can be prevented with faithful compliance to proper hygiene procedures. The solution lies literally in our hands. If we don’t clean our hands, then it is dirty with the needless suffering and death of patients from nosocomial infections. Our dirty hands are guilty hands. Works Cited Goldmann, Donald. â€Å"System Failure Versus Personal Accoutability–The Case for Clean Hands. New England Journal of Medicine. 355:121-3. 13 July 2006. 22 May 2007. https://content.nejm.org/cgi/reprint/355/2/121.pdf Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs).  Ã‚   Retrieved March 17, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/healthDis.html Ducel, G., et al., eds. Prevention of Hospital Acquired Infections-A Practical Guide. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2002. 21 May 2007.   http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/drugresist/whocdscsreph200212.pdf Gorman, Christine. â€Å"Wash Those Hands† How doctors and nurses can make you sick — and what you can do about it. TIME. 163. 1. 29 March 2004: Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Thomas Gale. Pasco-Hernando Community College Lib., New Port Richey, FL. 23 May 2007. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993710,00.html â€Å"Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings† Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. 51. 25. Oct. 2002: 1-44. Boyce, John and Diddier, Pittet. Het.comps Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). MMWR. Retrieved on 23 May 2007.   http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5116a1.htm McCaughey, Betsy. â€Å"Coming Clean. (Editorial Desk) (Hospital Hygiene and Infections).† The New York Times. 6 June 2005: Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Thomas Gale. Pasco-Hernando Community College Lib., New Port Richey, FL. 23 May 2007. http://hospitalinfection.org/press/060505ny_times.pdf How to cite Nosocomial Infections, Essay examples Nosocomial Infections Free Essays Remember your mother always reminding you to wash your hands? We have all been told to do so at one point in our lives or another. As children we grudgingly obeyed, not really appreciating the wisdom and love behind the statement. For most of us, the value of hand hygiene is superficial; a means to clean soiled, unsightly hands. We will write a custom essay sample on Nosocomial Infections or any similar topic only for you Order Now We were not aware that washing our hands regularly was a primary defense against many types of diseases. As a child it was imposed upon us by our parents, but as we grew older, we realize its true value but no longer practice it on a regular basis, finding it inconvenient and a waste of time. The truth is that hand hygiene is one of our best defenses against diseases. The simple act of washing and rubbing our hands vigorously with soap and running water is an effective shield against bacteria-borne infections. And this is especially true for health care professionals who are exposed to bacteria on a regular basis. People go to hospitals and other healthcare institutions for medical attention and treatment of their ailments. However, while most people get well after a trip to the hospital, there are cases where people get worse because of exposure to harmful microorganisms that abound in these hospitals. In hospitals, bacteria proliferate because of the high concentration of ill people at one place at any one given time, and they can cause secondary infections to people going to the hospital. These types of infections are caught secondary to a hospital visit or stay, and are called nosocomial infections. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) defined nosocomial infections or healthcare-acquired infections as â€Å"infections that patients acquire during the course of receiving treatment.† (Boyce, 2002, 29) And because these patients did not initially harbor these nosocomial infections, they could only have been acquired while in the hospital, while in contact with doctors and nurses who go from one sick patient to another. These health care professionals become the main mode of transmission for nosocomial infections, and this is made even worse especially if doctors and nurses do not practice proper hand hygiene. It does not take a rocket scientist to figure it out. In hospitals, most patients are bed-ridden, not allowed to go from one place to another. Therefore, the risk of them directly infecting another patient is slim. Only doctors and nurses move about from one patient to another, in constant physical contact with the patients. Because the hands are their main point of contact, the hands become the main vehicle of microbes as well. They â€Å"stick† to the doctors and nurses hands, and remain there until they are â€Å"dropped off† somewhere else. This process goes on and on until the bacteria find a suitable host, which is almost always, the human body. Inside the human body, these microbes will colonize and proliferate, causing many types of health problems. These transient, disease causing bacteria use the skin as temporary vehicles to get from one point to another. However, because these microbes are transient and non-colonizing on the skin surface, they are easily removed by proper and rigorous hand washing with an anti-microbial soap and water. Therefore, proper hand washing can halt the spread of disease-causing bacteria in their tracks. If doctors and nurses fail to clean their hands, they become virtual havens for microbes, transmitting and causing nosocomial infections. The figures are alarming. Studies have shown that one out of every 20 patients contract nosocomial infections because of inadequate hygiene practices in most American hospitals. These nosocomial infections â€Å"kill an estimated 103,000 people in the United States a year, as many as AIDS, breast cancer and auto accidents combined.† (McCaughey, 2005, 1) The World Health Organization says that nosocomial or healthcare acquired infections are one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. (Ducel, 2002, 7) And all of this because of dirty hands. And all of these deaths and suffering are unnecessary. They can be easily remedied. If every healthcare worker would faithfully practice proper hand hygiene as they move from one patient to another, â€Å"there would be an immediate and profound reduction in the spread of resistant bacteria.†(Goldmann, 2006, 122) From every point of contact with patients, the hands of doctors and nurses are dirty, carrying infection-causing microbes; and as doctors and nurses attend to their patients’ needs, these bacteria move into the patients. While most of these bacteria can normally be fought off by the body, the compromised bodies of patients already weakened by an existing sickness become easy targets for these parasites, and nosocomial infections can easily set in. And because these infections attack a weak immune system, these can lead to more serious complications and even death. As the main vectors of nosocomial infections, doctors and nurses can prevent the spread through appropriate hand-sanitizing procedures. Hand hygiene is the single most important patient care practice that health care providers can do to prevent cross contamination and nosocomial infection. Some may say that hand hygiene is made redundant by wearing of antiseptic gloves on a regular basis. However, even if doctors and nurses wear gloves, it will also be contaminated if the hands are not clean in the first place. These gloves must be worn and removed using the hands, and so the cycle of contamination perpetuates itself in the hands of doctors and nurses with dirty hands. The premise of hand washing is very simple and very effective. Microbes are parasites. They depend on a host to live and reproduce themselves. However, bacteria are not mobile; they do have the means to move from one place to another. As such, they depend on outside help to move about and find new hosts to infect. This help comes in the form of doctors and nurse, who because of their many responsibilities, forget to clean their hands, or do so incorrectly. The anti-microbial property of soaps plus the rigorous friction of the rubbing of the hands can easily remove, weaken, or even kill these transient, infection-causing microbes before they can cause anyone any more harm. As such, a system-wide must be enforced, making proper hand hygiene mandatory for all doctors and nurses. Hand hygiene stations must be installed all over hospitals to make it easy for healthcare workers to clean their hands anytime. Indeed nosocomial infections can exact a high price. But what is even more unfortunate about nosocomial infections is the fact that it can be avoided. These healthcare associated infections are unnecessary tragedies that can be easily prevented with proper sanitation and hygiene procedures. Of course it is important to note that hand hygiene or hand washing is not enough. It must be done properly, following certain guidelines. It is not enough to clean the hands; they must be disinfected. Normal or ordinary hand washing is the same as no hand hygiene at all. This means that hand washing must be done right, or not at all because it does not make any difference to harmful microbes or the health of the patients. Hand hygiene depends on the case and the area of the hospital involved. Normal hand hygiene should be done for at least a minute, with vigorous rubbing of the two hands against each other. Plain soap has been proven to effective against microorganism because the soap lifts the microbes off the surface of the skin to be rinsed off by running water. Hand hygiene need not be complicated or costly. All it takes is soap, running water, and friction, and the discipline to do it regularly and properly. The key is to make it a habit. There is no dearth of evidence showing that hand washing is effective in halting the spread of infections; the problem is that very few people in the health care industry practice hand hygiene in compliance with regulations. Most wash their hands but do so inappropriately, which is useless in itself. While stopping the spread of nosocomial infections is complex, there is no denying the fact that the first line of defense against nosocomial infections is hand hygiene for nurses and doctors. Simple adherence to proper cleaning/disinfecting procedures is all that is needed to prevent needless infections from spreading any further and causing more harm. It is simply a matter of discipline. First do no harm†¦ that is the adage that all health workers swear by. It is ironic that nurses and doctors should also be the main vectors of nosocomial infections. These nosocomial infections are the shame of the healthcare system because it can be prevented with faithful compliance to proper hygiene procedures. The solution lies literally in our hands. If we don’t clean our hands, then it is dirty with the needless suffering and death of patients from nosocomial infections. Our dirty hands are guilty hands. Works Cited Goldmann, Donald. â€Å"System Failure Versus Personal Accoutability–The Case for Clean Hands. New England Journal of Medicine. 355:121-3. 13 July 2006. 22 May 2007. https://content.nejm.org/cgi/reprint/355/2/121.pdf Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2006). Healthcare-Associated Infections (HAIs).  Ã‚   Retrieved March 17, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/healthDis.html Ducel, G., et al., eds. Prevention of Hospital Acquired Infections-A Practical Guide. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2002. 21 May 2007.   http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/drugresist/whocdscsreph200212.pdf Gorman, Christine. â€Å"Wash Those Hands† How doctors and nurses can make you sick — and what you can do about it. TIME. 163. 1. 29 March 2004: Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Thomas Gale. Pasco-Hernando Community College Lib., New Port Richey, FL. 23 May 2007. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993710,00.html â€Å"Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings† Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. 51. 25. Oct. 2002: 1-44. Boyce, John and Diddier, Pittet. Het.comps Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). MMWR. Retrieved on 23 May 2007.   http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5116a1.htm McCaughey, Betsy. â€Å"Coming Clean. (Editorial Desk) (Hospital Hygiene and Infections).† The New York Times. 6 June 2005: Opposing Viewpoints Resource Center. Thomas Gale. Pasco-Hernando Community College Lib., New Port Richey, FL. 23 May 2007. http://hospitalinfection.org/press/060505ny_times.pdf How to cite Nosocomial Infections, Essay examples

Chrysanthemums By John Steinbeck Essay Example For Students

Chrysanthemums By John Steinbeck Essay John Steinbeck wrote The Chrysanthemums in 1938. Steinbeck, as in many of hisnovels and short stories, depicts the life of poor, hard working people. In TheChrysanthemums, Steinbeck writes about a farmers wife living in California. The couple lives on a farm, as many individuals did in that time. Steinbeckdescribes the physical and mental hardships of families living off the land. Inthe short story, The Chrysanthemums, Elisa is constantly with held from lifebecause she is a woman. On every side it (the valley) sat like a lid on themountains and made of the great valley a closed pot. Under the lid wasSalinas Valley, the home of Henry and Elisa Allen. Henry was a farmer who made afair amount of money from his crops and stock. Elisa was Henrys wife; she hadthe hobby of taking care of her Chrysanthemums and the chore of being Henryswife. In Elisas garden, the Chrysanthemums grew with the work of her handsand the care of her heart. She seems to enjoy her garden immensely, but actuallywas trapped in it. She was trapped, because she felt that the only thing shecould do was tend her garden. Henry tells Elisa that her flowers were very goodlast year and some of the yellow flowers were 10 inches across. Henry toldElisa, I wish youd work out in the orchard and raise some apples thatbig. Elisa said, Maybe I could do it, too. Ive a gift with things, allright. Henry changes the subject and starts talking about his livestock thathe sold. Henry would not let her try her green thumb on the orchard, because ofthis, Elisa started to feel the pain of being a woman One day as Elisa wastending her garden, a wagon was passing on the road. Elisa looked up expectingthe wagon to pass, but it did not. The wagon pulled up the driveway. Painted onthe side of the wagon in sloppy words was, Pots, pans, knifes, sisors, lawnmores, Fixed. A big, hairy man got out of the wagon and offered to fix herscissors for her. Elisa claimed she had nothing to be fixed. In hope of gettingwork, the man complimented her flower garden, and as he had planned, the twostarted talking. They talked about his being on the road. Elisa asked him aboutwhere he sleeps and where he lives. Right in the wagon, maam. Rain orshine Im dry as a cow in th ere. Elisa said, It must be very nice. Iwish a woman could do such things. The man replied, It aint the rightkind of life for a woman. This is one instance where Elisa feels trapped as awoman. Elisa asked, How do you know? How can you tell? Elisa does not getan answer. He quickly changed the subject and started talking about herflowerbed. She told the man that the reason the Chrysanthemums were so big, isthat her mother had planter hands that made plants grow and the hands werepassed on to Elisa. He stated that someone down the road needed someChrysanthemums. She was happy to share her garden; she put a Chrysanthemum bulbinto a pot and handed it to the fix?all man. Elisa gave him specialinstructions for the care of the flowers. After this, Elisa decides to let himwork, on a few aluminum saucepans. Elisa pays the man and he leaves. Now thatthe man was gone; Elisa ran to the house, tore off her soiled clothes, and tooka hot shower. She scrubbed her body, hard and long, with a pumice s tone. Sheneeded to rid herself of the fix-all man. Elisa got out of the shower and lookedat herself in the mirror. She looked at her naked body, sucking in her stomachand pushing out her chest. Elisa then put on her nicest under garments. She alsoput on her newest, favorite dress; the symbol of her prettiness. Soon, Henrycomes in the room and says, Why?why, Elisa you look so nice. Elisareplied, Nice? You think I look nice? What do you mean by nice? Henryreplied, I dont know. I mean you look different, strong, and happy. Thecouple leaves the house to go out to eat. As they were driving down the road,they pass the fix ?all man. She looked back and saw her flower bulbs and sandslying on the road. The man kept the flowerpot. Elisa turned to the window andwept bitterly. Elisa then asked Henry, Henry can we have wine for dinner?Then she implied that she might want to go to the fights. Henry had never seenher act this way. Elisa turned up her coat collar so that Henry would not seeher cryi ng weakly?like an old woman. Elisa was a woman who had many conflicts. .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca , .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .postImageUrl , .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca , .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca:hover , .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca:visited , .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca:active { border:0!important; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca:active , .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u588c593658d07ce5832df7655132fbca:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Physical ed curriculum is important in elementary Essay She was living in her flower garden. Everything that Elisa does not have is putinto her garden. Her husband would not let her do any mans work on thefarm. The fix?all man did not even acknowledge her want of being out on theroad. He said it was a mans job. Elisa was repressed and had no way ofexpressing her feelings, except through the flowers in her garden. She wantedsomething new to make her feel like a woman. She scrubbed herself so deeply inthe shower in hope of cleaning herself anything that was not lady like. Elisahad no where to turn. At the end of The Chrysanthemums, Elisa excepts herself asan old woman. Elisa gave up. She did not care anymore. Elisa will probably beliving her life through the Chrysanthemums, until the day she dies.